Jigsaw 2

A is for Astronomy

People have looked at the stars for thousands of years. Hence astronomy, or the 'naming of stars' is an ancient science. Stonehenge in England and the pyramids of Egypt suggest that the principles of observing the heavens have been known for many millennia, for both of these ancient monuments were used as observatories. One thing that they got wrong initially was the movement of the planets. Ptolemy believed that the earth was at the centre of the universe and that everything revolved around the earth as a fixed centre, including the sun. It was not until Copernicus came on the scene that perceptions changed. In 1543 he published his book 'De revolutionibus orbium coelestium', in which he explained his theory of a heliocentric universe, in which the earth travelled around the sun. This was revolutionary stuff and in 1616 the catholic church banned his books, as they considered such theories against their doctrine. Copernicus was backed up by the findings of the brilliant Galileo, who was also branded a heretic, and imprisoned.

With a simple telescope, very primitive by today's standards, Galileo looked at the solar system. Of course today we know a great deal more about our solar system than Galileo ever did. For instance, modern cosmology, an allied science to astronomy, suggests that the solar system was formed five billion years ago. We also know a great deal more about the physical nature of the planets than our predecessors. The planets can be split into two different groups: the four terrestrial planets, which are close to the sun, and the four Jovian, or Jupiter-like planets, which are beyond Mars. The terrestrial planets have hard surfaces, while the Jovian planets are for the most part made up of gases. The centre of the solar system is the sun. It is ninety-three million miles away from the earth. Like most stars the sun consists of hydrogen mainly. At the sun's core the hydrogen nucleus becomes helium. It is the same process at work as a hydrogen atomic bomb.

The planet nearest to the earth is the moon (239,000 miles). It is a matter of debate how the moon was formed: some believe the moon was formed at the same time as the earth from the same debris - others believe that the moon was a sphere passing the earth that got caught in the earth's gravitational pull. Yet another theory is that there was a massive collision with the earth involving a planet as big as Mars. The impact caused a huge piece of debris to break off which over time formed the moon. Today scientists are looking at moon rock to try to discern if there was ever life on the moon. So far it does not look as if this has ever been the case. The earth is the only planet which can sustain life. A lot of speculation used to surround the planet Mars, concerning extra-terrstrial life. But we know the atmosphere is very thin and deadly ultra violet rays can reach the surface of the planet. Mars is very cold compared to the earth, another fact which makes it difficult for it to support life. Mercury is too close to the sun to support anything which would resemble life (36 million miles). Temperatures are hot enough to melt many metals, whilst at night, the temperature can drop to -180 degrees centigrade.

With Venus it is the atmosphere which is quite lethal. It consists of carbon dioxide and sulphuric acid. Jupiter, which is the largest planet in the solar system (equatorial diameter 89,350 miles) is made up of mainly gas, i.e. hydrogen and helium. Like Jupiter, Saturn is composed of mainly hydrogen. Saturn is the planet which has a series of rings surrounding it: the rings are chunks of ice. It is a lesser known fact that Neptune similarly has rings. Neptune has an arresting sea-blue atmosphere and is orbited by seven moons. Uranus is another gas giant, but unlike Neptune or Jupiter, its clouds are largely featureless. Pluto is the planet which is furthest from the sun (3670 million miles away) and it has a moon Charon, which is very near to it (12,240 miles).

All of the planets in the solar system are now looked at by scientists with a view to colonization. Often this is only something to theorize about, but it can help to predict what generations of people far into the future might do when the earth becomes uninhabitable. It is a known fact that in two or three billion years time the earth will be too hot to sustain life, and there will have to be a mass exodus. Perhaps with global warming that time span will be brought forward dramatically. Where will future generations make for ? The moons of Jupiter might be a likely candidate. Of the sixteen moons Europa and Io could be suitable. It will take a lot of research to find out if it will ever be possible to live on these moons, but already scientists are asking such questions.

B is for Bacteria

Bacteria can only be seen through a microscope. They are some of the smallest living things and were first looked at by the Dutchman Anton Van Leeuwenhoek in the 1670's. It was not until the nineteenth century however, that bacteriology, or the study of bacteria, became a recognized science. It was the work of Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch which pioneered advances in bacteriological study. Robert Koch was the first scientist to show that certain bacteria caused certain diseases. He found the bacteria that causes tuberculosis. Louis Pasteur investigated infectious diseases too and his research led to the science of immunology. It is because of their work that we know so much about bacteria today.

Bacteria exist everywhere, and it is true that there are many different kinds; thousands in fact. Koch and Pasteur dealt with the bacteria that are harmful to mankind, yet it is true that many bacteria are harmless to humans, in fact some can be helpful. The bacteria that live in the intestine for example, are essential to aiding our digestion. We could not do without them. They destroy other harmful organisms. The many kinds of harmful bacteria however, do a lot of damage. Pneumonia, typhoid fever, whooping cough etc., are all diseases caused by bacteria. The bacteria attack healthy cells and destroy them. The body fights back however, and white blood cells attack the bacteria. The blood produces antibodies that kill or weaken the invaders. Bacteria are tough however, they have a strong cell wall and like cells of all living things, the bacterial cells contain DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid. This controls a cell's growth and reproduction etc. Bacteria reproduce by binary fusion. Each cell divides into two identical cells and this process can go on indefinitely, hence it is not difficult to see the magnitude of their reproduction. If a cell has enough food over a billion bacteria can be produced in ten hours. Some of the most harmful bacteria are dangerous because of this and would be termed virulent.

Bacteria are divided into two groups according to their shape. Rod-shaped bacteria are termed 'bacilli', whilst round bacteria are called 'cocci'. Those like bent rods are termed 'vibrios', whilst spiral-shaped bacteria are termed 'spirilla' and 'spirochetes'. Some require oxygen to live and are called 'aerobes', whilst 'anaerobes' survive without oxygen. But it is true that bacteria can live just about anywhere - the air, water or soil. They can travel long distances in the air or be flushed through fast-running water currents. They can be carried on clothing or on utensils, such as cooking utensils, which could lead to food poisoning, and on other objects. The war against bacteria is a constant and ongoing one. The importance of cleanliness in hospitals is paramount, as there may be any amount of bacteria lurking, just waiting to strike.

C is for Clocks

From the earliest times man has wanted to measure time. From the crudest sundials of the ancient world to the most expensive clocks of more recent times man has found a way of expressing his interest in things horological. Over the last three hundred and fifty years many fine clocks have been produced. In 1650 the first one-year clock was invented.

All mechanical clocks have what is known as an escapement, i.e. the device which releases at regular intervals a train of wheels and pinions which are connected to the clock hands, and so allow the clock to keep time. Early clocks had what is called a verge escapement, and a short while later came the anchor escapement. The first domestic clock was the lantern clock and from the 1660's onwards came the bracket clocks which were suitable for table or mantelpiece. In France and Germany porcelain clocks were produced and then in 1810 the first carriage clock was produced by Breguet in Paris. Skeleton clocks, where the movement is exposed, evolved from mantel clocks produced in Paris.

Two important clockmakers in England were Knibb, producing clocks in the latter half of the seventeenth century and also Thomas Tompion, who produced longcase clocks, often using walnut or olivewood and sometimes featuring elaborate marquetry designs. Today the digital clock is very popular and is changing the face of timekeeping forever. Clocks with chimes and jingles and moving faces can also be found in jeweller's shops now and keeping time becomes something of an entertainment.

D is for Design

Design is important in all our daily lives. Whether it be on the wallpaper in our bedroom which we wake up to or the design on the cup we drink our bedtime cocoa from: design is part of the way we live. To some extent design is what makes the world an attractive place to live in. It is where the artist has been to work and left his indelible stamp on a whole range of items. Take a plate for example - it usually has a design. This consists of three constituents: colour, form and pattern. A plate will have a background colour, a distinct shape, probably round, but maybe hexagonal or octagonal and it will nearly always have a pattern: flowers are popular, but maybe it will be a contemporary design of geometrical shapes - circles, squares or triangles.

Interior design today is a highly sophisticated business. There are entire ranges of colour-co-ordinated fabrics, including curtains and carpets, and also wallpapers, lampshades and even suites of furniture which are made to match other fabrics. These matches are based on colour and pattern. The designers which think up these ranges of room co-ordinates usually have a background in Art, but increasingly today they will have a knowledge of computers, because computer graphics are the latest tools of design. Computer graphics generate highly complicated designs, often abstract in nature or strikingly geometric. Still popular however, are classical designs from Greek, Roman and Egyptian cultures. History still plays a part in the creation of all things new !

E is for Ecology

Ecology is a significant branch of biology. It deals with the relationship between living organisms and their environment. The interplay of these two things forms what we term an ecosystem. In a sense you could say the whole world is just one big ecosystem, but it would be unwieldy to study the subject from this point of view. Much more manageable ecosystems to study would be, for instance, a peatbog, a pond, or a forest etc. An ecologist wants to know why a given species is present in specific numbers in an ecosystem. He also aims to study that species' interaction with all the other live organisms also present, what we term 'biotic factors'. He also wishes to study that species' interaction with the physical or 'abiotic' factors. Biotic factors include associations between organisms including symbiosis, where the organisms live attached to each other, and parasitism where one organism feeds off the other. Predation is less direct an association than between parasite and host, whilst there can also be co-operation between organisms, where they live together as social animals - for example bees, wasps, termites and that very social of all insects, ants. Abiotic factors which determine an organism's life in its environment include temperature, amount of light, and also humidity. Other important abiotic factors are soil, humus, and in aquatic environments, the difference between sea and fresh water.

In all ecosystems there is a food chain. One organism eats another and so on up the chain. But because an animal's diet is often fairly varied and one species of animal may be part of the food of numerous other animals, interactions come into play which are termed 'food webs'. If we are to compare these eating habits, it is a good idea to group together all the organisms which have similar food habits. When we do this a phenomenon called the pyramid of numbers appears: organisms at the bottom of the food chain are very prolific, whilst those at the top of the pyramid, the last ones to consume, if you like, are comparatively few in number.

Just as organisms are part of a food chain, man too is involved. He is the ultimate consumer. it is the student of ecology who looks at food supply and also human population or demography. The population around the world is rising fast. Even if the world can feed everybody, which it certainly has the potential to do, we must achieve an equilibrium so births do not outrageously outweigh deaths. Efforts to control birth-rate will greatly ease the demands made on the world's resources.

F is for Furniture

The world of antiques is a very vast one, so it would be impossible to describe our great array of English furniture in any detail here. Suffice it to say that certain names in the history of furniture-making stand out: Thomas Chippendale is one such name. Inspired by the Rococo style in the reign of George III, he was also influenced by the earlier Gothic style. Probably best-known for his chairs, they were broad and generously proportioned, he made much use of carved openwork to decorate the backs. Nowadays any furniture which reflects his style is referred to as 'Chippendale'.

Another important name in furniture design is that of Sheraton. He tended to replace the earlier oval and shield backs with straight lines and simpler, squarer designs. For decoration Sheraton was keen on inlay and veneering. The most popular wood at the time was rosewood and this could be used as a finish to some other wood i.e. a veneer or laying on top of a base wood. Satinwood was also popular. A particularly expensive wood called amboyne was sometimes used for the best pieces. Mahogany, always a favourite, retained much of its popularity. Mahogany was in fact used particularly by Hepplewhite. A lot of his work was carved. He specialized in settees and occasionally used the French cabriole leg. A cabriole leg or 'bandy leg' starts from just under the seat or table, curves outwards at the knee and then curves backwards to the foot, being tapered as it does so. As well as settees Hepplewhite made many designs for chests of drawers or 'commodes'. Today one can come across many forgeries of these famous furniture-makers designs. It takes skill and many years of experience to sometimes identify the real thing. Often genuine and authentic pieces are very expensive.

G is for Glass

The art of the glass-maker is an age-old one. Men have been making glass for over 3,500 years. Glass was first produced in western Asia. At first, mainly glass beads were produced and it was not until later, in the sixteenth and fifteenth centuries BC, that larger vessels were made. Egypt established a glass industry during the fifteenth century BC and it was in the reign of Tuthmosis III that the first vessels appeared. Such vessels were made by the 'core' technique. A modelled core (mud bound with straw) was fixed to a metal rod and covered with molten glass. The outer surface was then marvered (or smothered) and when the glass had cooled the rod would be removed and the core picked out. This initial technique for producing glass was laborious and difficult to accomplish skilfully. It was not until the first century AD in the Roman Empire that the technique of glass-blowing originated. It meant that there was now more flexibility in the type of glass produced and many more shapes could be fashioned by the glass-blower's skill. There was an expansion of factories throughout Europe whilst Alexandrian workers in Egypt continued to specialize in coloured glass; they did not take to the glass-blowing technique until the second century AD.

Glassmaking did not really come to England until the building of the monasteries and cathedrals from the seventh century AD onward. In the north-east of England it was Benedict Biscop who encouraged french glassmakers to visit Britain, introducing stained glass to the churches of the area. The monastery at Jarrow in the time of Bede would certainly have benefited. Once this innovation caught on, it became a tradition that was to last for hundreds of years, with glassmaking factories becoming major industries lasting well into the victorian era and beyond.